"THE FIRST GENERAL EPISTLE OF PETER"

There is abundant evidence to prove that this epistle was written by the apostle whose name it bears. Hardly any book of the New Testament is better supported by external evidence (extending as far back as the writings of Polycarp in the early part of the second century), while internally it bears in many of its features the stamp of Peter's mind, and the traces of his experience, as these are represented to as in the Gospels and in the Book of Acts.

From these sources we learn that the apostle was originally called "Simon, the son of John," and that he was a fisherman of Bethsaida before he attached himself to Jesus. With his brother Andrew, who brought him to Jesus, he was a disciple of John the Baptist before finding the Messiah. At His very first interview with the new disciple, Jesus discerned his great capacity for rendering service to His cause, and gave him a prophetic token of the part he was to play in the early history of His Church by conferring on him the new name of Cephas (in Greek, Peter, meaning rock or stone), (John L 40-42). The significance of the name was more fully unfolded at a later time on the occasion of Peter's great confession of Jesus as the Christ (Matt. xvi. 13-19). Like John and James, Peter was admitted to a closer fellowship with his Master than the rest of the disciples (Mark v. 37; Matt. xvii. 1; xxvi. 37, cf. Mark iii. 16, 17). In company with John he was a witness of Christ's trial in the high priest's palace, where he fell into the threefold denial of his Master — to be bitterly repented of immediately afterwards (Matt. xxvi. 69-75; Mark xiv. 66-72; Luke xxii. 54-62; John xviii 15-27). On the third day after the crucifixion the same disciples went together early in the morning to the tomb and found it empty, as Mary Magdalene had told them. The new faith which then sprang up in Peter's heart was confirmed by several interviews granted to him by the risen Christ, who gave him a new commission, thrice uttered, to devote himself to the interests of his Master's flock, and predicted that he would die a martyr's death (John xx. 1-10, 19; Luke xxiv. 33-34; 1 Cor. xv. 5; John xxi.)

In the Book of Acts we find Peter acting as the leader and spokesman of the early Church at several crises in its history, viz. the election of an apostle in place of the betrayer; the descent of the Holy Spirit on the day of Pentecost; the admission of the Gentiles, in the person of Cornelius, the Roman centurion, to the communion of the Church; and the emancipation of the Gentile converts from the bondage of the Jewish law at the Council of Jerusalem (Acts i. 15-26; ii. 1-42; x.; xv. 6-11). It appears that shortly after the last -mentioned occasion (50 or 51 A.D.) Peter was guilty of vacillation in his relations with Gentile Christians at Antioch — reminding us of his earlier weakness, — which called forth a public remonstrance from the apostle of the Gentiles (Gal. ii. 11-14).

Regarding Peter's subsequent life scarcely any information is furnished by the New Testament; but there is an ancient and general tradition that he suffered martyrdom at Rome along with Paul during the persecution in the reign of Nero. Many legends have gathered round his imprisonment, death, and burial. The lack of evidence for these need not prevent us from acquiescing in the general belief of the early Church that it was at Rome Peter suffered the death by martyrdom which had been predicted by his Lord. This is contradicted by no other ancient tradition of the Church, and we have some confirmation of it in this epistle (see p. 134).

In illustration of the remark already made as to the harmony of this epistle with Peter's experience and character, we may note the following points, (1) The writer claims to have been "a witness of the sufferings of Christ " (v. 1), and retains a vivid impression of them, as shown in his description of Christ's patience (ii. 20-24} and the frequency of his allusions to the subject. (2) He gives prominence to Christ's resurrection, and represents it as the source of a new and living hope (i. 3-4, 21; iii. 20-21), which had precisely been Peter's experience. (3) He dwells upon the pastoral aspect of Christ's ministry (ii. 25; v. 2-4) as if under an abiding sense of the responsibility laid upon him by his Master's threefold charge to act the part of a shepherd to his flock. (4) He enlarges on the idea embodied in Peter's name, representing the Church as "a spiritual house " composed of living stones, with Christ Himself as the chief cornerstone (ii. 4-8) — to which he had already given expression in his address to the Sanhedrim (Acts iv. 11-12), after the example of his Lord — quoting from the Old Testament (Matt. xxi. 42). (5) His injunction to his readers, "all of you gird yourselves with humility" (literally, "put on humility like a slave's apron," v. 5), sounds like a reminiscence of the Saviour's action which so astonished Peter when **he took a towel and girded himself" in order to wash His disciples' feet, saying, when He had finished, " I have given you an example that ye also should do as I have done to you" (John xiii. 2-17). (6) His language in i. 17 ("And if ye call on him as Father, who without respect of persons," etc.) bears a strong resemblance to Peter's words at Caesarea, "Of a truth I perceive that God is no respecter of persons," etc. (Acts x. 34). (7) In ii. 13-16, " Be subject to every ordinance of man for the Lord's sake . . . as free," we have probably the reproduction of the lesson taught to Peter by his Lord with regard to the payment of the tribute money (Matt. xvii. 24-27).

In the last-mentioned passage, as in many others, we can discern traces of the graphic and pictorial style characteristic of the Gospel of Mark, which there is reason to believe is largely a record of Peter's preaching. Such are the expressions, "not using your freedom for a cloke of wickedness" (ii. 16), the word translated "cloke" being peculiar to Peter (only used here), and meaning a veil or covering ; "ye should put to silence the ignorance of foolish men" (ii. 15), the word rendered "put to silence" meaning, in a literal sense, to muzzle (as a dog), and being only applied elsewhere in the New Testament to the subduing of an unclean spirit, and the stilling of the raging sea — both in the Gospel of Mark (i. 25; iv. 39); "leaving you an example that ye should follow his steps " (ii. 21), the literal meaning of the word translated "example" being the copy-head set before a scholar for his patient and persevering imitation; "your adversary the devil, as a roaring lion, walketh about seeking whom he may devour " (v. 8). Akin to the pictorial style of the epistle is the "wealth of epithets" by which it is distinguished, e.g. "an inheritance incorruptible, and undefiled, and that fadeth not away" (i. 4). Cf. i. 7, 19; ii. 9, etc

It appears from v. 12 that in writing this epistle he had the assistance of "Silvanus, our faithful brother," as his amanuensis, who is, no doubt, to be identified with the " Silas " mentioned in Acts xv. 22, 32, 40, and the Silvanus of 1 Thess. i. 1; 2 Thess. i. 1; 2 Cor. i. 19.

To whom written. — "To the elect who are tfojoumers of the Dispersion in Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia. "The meaning of the address has been much disputed. By some it has been taken in a literal sense as denoting the Christian Jews of the Dispersion residing in the various parts of Asia Minor that are here specified. But this is inconsistent with the language used by the apostle to his readers in i. 14; ii. 9-10 (where he quotes the same passage from Hosea that Paul applies to the calling of the Gentiles in Rom. ix. 25); iii 6 (R.V.); iv. 3 (R.V.) All these passages would lead us to suppose that the readers of the epistle were largely Gentiles, as we know the members of the Churches in Asia Minor for the most part were.¹

The best interpretation of the words "sojourners of the Dispersion" is to take them in a spiritual sense with reference to the heavenly Canaan, from which Christ's followers on earth may be regarded as temporary exiles, the Churches to which they belong being scattered branches of a commonwealth that has its home and its metropolis in heaven. This interpretation is justified by the whole tone of the epistle, which gives a spiritual meaning to the blessings of the Old Covenant. It accords in particular with ii. 11, "Beloved, I beseech you as sojourners and pilgrims, to abstain from fleshly lusts, which war against the soul."

When and where written. — The only thing we have to guide us as to the place of writing is v. 13: "• She that is in Babylon, elect together with you, saluteth you," i.e. the Church (or else St. Peter's wife, 1 Cor. ix. 5; Matt. viii. 14). By " Babylon " we are probably to understand the city of Rome, as the new seat of oppression and cruelty to God's people. This was the view generally held by the early Church Fathers; it is in accordance with the figurative language of the epistle, referred to in the previous section; and it accounts for the strong resemblance between this epistle and that of Paul to the Romans.² It is almost certain that Babylon has this meaning in the Revelation; and it would add to the force of Peter's exhortations to courage and patience, that he was himself, when he wrote, in the very heart of the conflict.

With regard to the date of its composition, the probability seems to be that the letter was written shortly after the outbreak of the Neronian persecution, when the Churches in the provinces were beginning to experience the effects of the imperial example at Rome, This would be about 64-5 A.D.

Its Character and Contents. — This epistle breathes the spirit of practical earnestness so characteristic of its author. The Greek word "to do good" occurs no less than nine times in the course of the five chapters. There is no want of allusion to Christian privilege and Christian doctrine; but it is always for a practical purpose, as furnishing motives for Christian obedience. Of this we have an illustration in the frequent use of the words "wherefore," "because," etc., by way of enforcing practical applications (i. 13, 16, 22; ii. 1, etc). The chief duty which the writer wishes to inculcate is that of patience under suffering (i. 6-7; ii. 19-21; iii 13-18; iv. 12-19). Ill many cases this suffering arose from persecution. But it was social rather than legal persecution, proceeding from suspicion and ill-will on the part of the non-Christian members of the community (ii. 18-19; iii. 16). The very name of Christian was becoming a term of reproach (iv. 16); and even worse trials were in store for them (iv. 12, 17). For the endurance of all such unmerited sufferings the apostle points them to the example of the Saviour (whose sufferings are referred to in every chapter), at the same time bidding them take care that they did not bring trouble on themselves by their unworthy conduct. Their trials, he reminds them, are only for a time (i. 6; iv. 7; v. 10), and will receive abundant compensation at the revelation of Christ's glory (i. 7; iv. 13-14; v. 10). "The sufferings of Christ and the glories that should follow " are indeed the two poles around which the whole argument of the epistle turns, resulting in a beautiful blending of patience and hope. Hence Peter has been styled "the Apostle of Hope."

Along with the calls to patience there are mingled various other admonitions addressed to citizens ii. 13-17; servants, ii. 18-20; wives, iii. 1-6; husbands, iii 7; elders of the Church, v. 1-4; and the congregation generally, with reference to various duties, iv. 5-11, etc It is worthy of note, that although this epistle has so little of a speculative character, it has been the means of revealing two interesting truths, which would not have been otherwise known to us (i. 12, last clause; iii. 1820). It may also be said to contain a practical refutation of the Romish theory as to Peter's jurisdiction in the Church. So far from making any claim to authority or pre-eminence, the writer expressly puts himself on a level with the other presbyters, and deprecates anything like a spirit of lordship in the exercise of their ministry (v. 1-3). The names "priest," "bishop,"³ " Church," are never even mentioned by him.

1) For information regarding the Church in Pontus see Acts ii. 9; xviii. 2; in Galatia, pp. 71-73; in Cappadocia, Acts ii. 9; in Asia, Acts xxiii. 24-26; xx. 17-35; Ephesians and Colossians. These Churches had received the Gospel from Paul and his associates. Hence the value of Peter's testimony in v. 12.

2) E.g. cf. ii. 6-8, Rom. ix. 33, and Isa. viii. 14, xxviii. 16; ii. 13-14, Rom. xiii. 1-4. A resemblance can also be traced to Ephesians and the Epistle of James, showing how little truth there is in Baur's theory of an irreconcilable opposition between Paul and the rest of the apostles (Salmon's Introduction, pp. 485-89).

3) Except in ii. 25, where, however, it is Christ Himself who is so designated.