CHARACTER OF THE GALILEANS.

1. Thoroughly a Jewish People. — It is by no means an easy task to describe minutely the character of this people, numbering perhaps three millions, made up as it was of many peculiar original or internal elements, and wrought upon by so many peculiar influences that were foreign or external to it. On the west were the Phoenicians, on the north the Syrians, on the south the Samaritans, and in some of the principal cities of the province were strongly marked features of Greco-Roman civilisation. Yet this remark in regard to the existence here of Greco-Roman civilisation must not be made to mean too much; for, when all the evidence on this point is collected, the real extent of such a foreign element is seen to have been very limited. The people preserved, as a body, their thoroughly Jewish character, in spite of any foreign influences tending to the contrary. It is as a Jewish people that the Galileans are to be judged. This fact is very significant. Those elements of national character by which a people is preserved from blending with those with whom it comes in contact form an interesting topic for study. Perhaps the tenacity with which the Jew held to his religious ideas might tend to exclusiveness and bigotry. Yet while he would not allow interference in the affairs of his religion, he prided himself upon his noble treatment of strangers; and, as he allowed foreigners to settle upon Jewish soil, so he claimed the corresponding right, namely, to be allowed to go and settle wherever men were. In Christ's time one might have spoken with truth of the omnipresent Jew. 'The Jews had made themselves homes in every country, from the Tiber to the Euphrates, from the pines of the Caucasus to the spice-groves of happy Arabia¹.' A mere catalogue of the cities where they had settled at that time — in the Far East, in Egypt, in Syria, in Greece and her islands — is astonishing. With but few exceptions, they seem to have been everywhere a wealthy, and, in general, an influential class. The decrees issued from time to time by the Roman Senate, favouring or honouring the Jews in the different cities of the empire, were very numerous, and throw much light upon their numbers, character, prosperity, and their civil and social relations and standing. A number of these are preserved by Josephus. If one should say that the Jews were bigoted in regard to religion, he should remember at the same time, that, in regard to social, commercial, and political relations, none were more cosmopolitan in either sentiment or practice than they. And if the Jewish people deserve any credit for this cosmopolitan spirit, perhaps the praise should be given to the Galileans, who, on account of their peculiar surroundings, must have led the way in this friendly intercourse with other nations. It will be important to remember this point when we come to consider the religious character of this people.

Greek influence in Palestine in Christ's time can be reduced, we think, to a very small amount. The decided contempt of the Jews, as a nation, for all foreign languages, learning, science, history, &c., would tend to preserve their Jewish character, their religion, and peculiar customs intact They preserved their national character free from foreign influences to a far greater degree than many are disposed to admit, and made efforts in the first century after Christ to maintain among themselves a thorough knowledge of the Biblical Hebrew.

Gadara and Hippos are spoken of as Greek cities. The Syrians in Scythopolis seem to have been a majority. The 'Strangers' in Tarichsea were not necessarily foreigners, but new-comers, in distinction from old settlers. The Greeks in Tiberias were a small fraction of the whole population. In Judaea also, Gaza was a Greek city, and in Caesarea both Syrians and Greeks were numerous. On Syrian and Phoenician cities, see Ant., XIII. xv. 4. Syrians hated the Jews.

2. Chiefly an Agricultural People. — Further, it is chiefly as an agricultural people that we must regard them. There was, indeed, in that period, a. vast amount of public building going on (under Herod the Great, Antipas, and Philip), which would require and occupy many men; secondly, we must reckon the lake commerce, which was considerable; thirdly, the fisheries (important, as we have seen); fourthly, the carrying trade — transporting the productions of the country to foreign markets, and also merchandise between Egypt and Damascus. It is an important fact that whatever was landed from Ptolemais for Damascus, and whatever came from Egypt bound for Damascus or the Far East, and merchandise from the Far East and Damascus, bound for Egypt or Rome, would always, or at least generally, pass through Galilee. Add to these, dyeing, weaving, stone-cutting, ship-building, pottery manufacture, and a few other industries. But when we have made a sufficient deduction for all these methods of employment, we shall have left still the bulk of the population, whose business was agriculture.

An interesting topic to follow out would be the estimation in which labour was held by the people of Galilee. Cicero said of manual labour, 'there is nothing liberal in it.' A sentiment directly the opposite of this was inculcated by the teaching and practice of our Lord. The inhabitants of the northern province appear to have been an earnest, busy, and laborious class. Its wealth and prosperity, together with the good order, both civil and social, which prevailed there, would seem to indicate industry, enterprise, and intelligence on the part of its citizens. Under a people who believed in a personal and righteous God, and in their own personal accountability, all honest labour became honourable, and the valleys and hills of Galilee blossomed as a rose.

3. Eminent for Patriotism and Courage. — Among the prominent virtues of the Galileans we mention here their patriotism. If the influence of surrounding nations had been so marked upon their character as is sometimes claimed, — and it seems to us that Graetz, for example, exaggerates this beyond reason, — it would have resulted in weakening the ties which bound them to their country, national institutions, and ideas; but from the time of Herod's first connection with this province in B.C. 47, to the destruction of Jerusalem in A.D. 70, the Galileans were among the noblest patriots of which the nation could boast. Had this patriotism been wanting in them, even in the least degree, the fact would have been developed greatly to their prejudice in the Jewish war; but in that struggle the Galileans made a noble record. Their intense devotion to 'the national idea' has been spoken of as ' hot-blooded.'

Also their loyalty and devotion to their rulers, and their bravery, for which they were justly celebrated, may properly be considered in connection with the topic just mentioned. To the young governor, Herod, they were warmly attached. When he was appointed king, this province declared almost unanimously in his favour. Again, the fact that Antipas held the government forty-three years without special complaint from his subjects, shows a people well-disposed towards a ruler who, whatever may be said of his morals, was, as a ruler, liberal, energetic, and capable in every sense. Still later, the devotion of the Galileans to Josephus was made by him a matter of special praise. Their interest in him, and their anxiety for his welfare, outweighed all considerations of peril or loss of property to themselves. The instances illustrating this statement are numerous. In praising their bravery, Josephus says that' cowardice was never a characteristic of the Galileans.' Aristobulus II. and Herod the Great found here some of their most valiant soldiers; and the deeds of the patriot army under Josephus exhibited a marvellous contempt of danger and death. A bold, hardy, industrious race always does heroic deeds, when fully roused and struggling for its fatherland and freedom. This was preeminently the case with the Galileans. Their character as developed in that struggle may be taken as a hint as to what, for perhaps many generations, had been the character of their ancestors.

In judging the Galileans in that war, we must not use the same standards that we judge the Romans by. Difference of race, of civilisation, and of national purpose, must all be considered. It was an agricultural people matched against the finest military people of the world. Among the Galileans the discipline was poor. They fought, as Orientals have always done, with fiery courage, and splendid individual valour, but with a painful lack of system. Still, taken at this great disadvantage, they command our highest admiration. Josephus is aware that his force is not sufficient to cope with the Romans, and he calls upon Jerusalem for reinforcements, but none are sent. Galilee must alone and unaided bear the brunt of the war during the first year of its progress. It must be remembered that this period is that of Rome's greatest power. Yet the Emperor Nero is 1 seized with consternation and alarm ' at the magnitude of the revolt. The feeling at Rome is expressed by the fact that Vespasian, the best general of the empire, is chosen to deal with this rebellion; and, secondly, by the fact that such a powerful army of veterans is thought necessary to be massed at Ptolemais before operations can begin. The sight of these sixty thousand veterans, among whom there is the perfection of discipline, and who are backed by the moral power of almost uninterrupted victory, must send dismay to the hearts of those Galilean youths. This splendid army that has been victorious over every nation, and whose engines have levelled the foremost structures in the world, has come hither to try its strength and skill upon the people and fortresses of Galilee. The abandonment with which the Galileans plunge into this struggle admits of no retreat. To restore their country's ancient liberty is the wild dream of those brave, misguided men. The tough work before them seems to serve as a stimulus to greater boldness. At Jotapata they fight with desperate energy. The one hundred and sixty projectile engines of the Romans fill the air with murderous stones and other implements of death. Even after forty days of almost superhuman valour, but which is seen to be unavailing, these patriots still prefer ' to die for liberty ' and ' their country's glory' rather than surrender. For six terrible hours the 'fighting men' of Japha — the largest 'village' of Galilee — beat back the Roman soldiers, till ' twelve thousand ' of the former were consumed. The struggle at Gamala is one of the most heroic of the war. Tiberias, Tarichaea, Mount Tabor, Gischala, fall in succession. The fate of Jotapata, it was said, sealed the fate of the whole of Judaea. The backbone of the rebellion was broken when Galilee was subdued. The hardest fighting of the war was done by these brave people of the north. That for her may well be called a bloody year, in which one hundred and fifty thousand or more of her people perished. The flower of her youth had fallen. The conduct of the Galileans calls forth generous criticisms even from their victorious enemies. Vespasian notices their fidelity to each other and their contempt of suffering, and Titus admits ' that they are fighting for freedom and country' and that 'they bear up bravely in disaster.' He even appeals to their example as a means of stimulating his own veteran troops. The Romans had reason to be proud of the conquest of Galilee. But their army was weary, and its ranks thinned from the bloody work of this campaign, and Vespasian was obliged to order time for rest and recruiting.

A very minute and vivid account of the organisation and discipline of the Roman army is given by Josephus. Of the size of the army, Tacitus gives the forces of the Romans as follows: 5th, loth, I5th, and 3rd, I2th, 22nd legions; 20 cohorts of allies; 8 squadrons of horse; also two kings, Agrippa and Sohemus; Antiochus sent the forces of his kingdom; also 'a formidable body of Arabs with embittered feelings ' took part; and a ' considerable number of volunteers went from Rome and Italy.' Graetz makes the army about Jerusalem number 80,000 men. Weber and Holtzmann quote Hausrath's brilliant description of the character of the two armies and the contrast between them, and also Gfrörer's, from his Preface to the Jewish War of Josephus.

4. Their Ancestors Eminent for Bravery. — The bravery of which we have seen such wonderful exhibitions seems to have been a characteristic of the people of this region from remote times. Their position made them the first to suffer in case of those great invasions from the East, a circumstance which would naturally have a tendency to foster bravery in them. 'Zebulun and Naphtali were a people that jeoparded their lives unto the death in the high places of the field².' Within the limits of this province were embraced some of the most memorable battle-fields of the nation. A people among whom national and traditional customs were cherished as dearer than life would not be indifferent to old memories and historical associations; and hence the Galileans could not but be stimulated by the noble deeds that had been wrought by their ancestors upon their own soil. The Plain of Jezreel was a famous field of strife. Kishon was a river of battle. Deborah and Barak led down from Tabor ten thousand heroes against the King of Hazor, and routed his general, Sisera, and his army. Zebulun, Naphtali, and Asher followed Gideon in the storm against Midian. Soon after the division of the kingdom of Solomon, the princes of Zebulun and Naphtali, in common with those of Benjamin and Judah, led their heroes against Moab. And in the final struggle with Rome, these bold and independent sons of the north rallied, as we have seen, first and foremost to oppose the invincible legions, and battled with desperate energy from mountain-pass to mountain-pass, from city to city, from fortress to fortress, till one after another the cities and fortresses of this province were beaten into ruins; and then, as the nation rallied for a death-grapple with the enemy, the remnants of the Galilean band joined their countrymen behind the walls of Jerusalem, and resisted with superhuman might that all-conquering power, as it slowly, but surely, beat down the walls, and even overturned ' the foundations of Zion,' burying city and Temple and their heroic defenders in a common ruin.

5. Their Great Respect for Law and Order. — Again, the Galileans are to be thought of as peaceable and law-abiding citizens. The impression is sometimes given that the very opposite of this was the case. Thus Ritter speaks of the people of Tiberias ' as always in quarrels with the parent city of Jerusalem,' for which no authority is given, and which is contrary to fact. And Hausrath, usually correct, states that Josephus calls the Galileans 'common peace-disturbers of the land,' whereas Josephus is referring directly to the robbers in certain caves, which Herod had subdued. Because Galilee was the home of Judas the Zealot, Graetz states that ' the land was full of hot-heads,' thus giving a very wrong impression. Of these, the second reference is wrong; the first is an isolated case that happened in Jerusalem, and does not by any means represent the character of the Galileans; in the last Josephus simply says, 'trained to war from their infancy,' — meaning that the Galileans, although chiefly an agricultural people, were obliged, on account of the people about them, to be acquainted to some extent with military affairs. Josephus does not state, nor say anything from which we might infer, that the Galileans were 'turbulent' and 'rebellious,' or that they delighted in 'warfare '; he says nothing of the kind; and the impression left after several careful readings of Josephus is as we have stated — that they were peaceable and law-abiding citizens. Indeed, Josephus makes a careful distinction between the inhabitants on the border and the robbers, and shows that the former were not in sympathy with the latter, but were greatly harassed by them. After Herod had crushed them, 'Galilee was delivered from its apprehensions; ' which statement confirms what we have said. The Syrians even (Galilee's neighbours on the north) sung songs in honour of Herod on this occasion, showing that they, as well as the Galileans, were not in sympathy with the robbers. Those robber bands on the border, secreted in caves — 'dens of thieves ' — the guerillas of that age, — we hear almost nothing of after Herod made such thorough work in subduing them.

Again, about the year A.D. 51, certain commotions arose in various parts of the land, to which Josephus alludes; and in the same connection he speaks of one occasion when the Galileans, on their way to a feast at Jerusalem, were assaulted near Ginaea by some Samaritans, and one or more of the former were killed. On account of the negligence of Cumanus, the Roman governor, very serious trouble grew out of this affair. But the affair itself has been greatly exaggerated. For instance Keim says: 'The Galileans were often obliged to open by force a way through the Samaritan district, when they would go to the feasts at Jerusalem³.' And Hausrath likewise gives the impression that such events were of frequent occurrence. But this event appears to have been an isolated instance; at least, there is no evidence to the contrary, while considerable evidence could be produced to show some intercourse and many friendly acts between the Galileans and the Jews of Judaea on one side, and the Samaritans on the other. Furthermore, it is wholly wrong to say that 'the Sicarii committed more crimes in Galilee than in Judaea⁴.' The very opposite was true.

Perhaps the following summary will set the real state of affairs before the reader's mind.

During the long reign of Herod the Great, Galilee enjoyed prosperity and quiet. The same was true of it, with perhaps one exception — Antipas' war with Aretas — during the longer reign of Herod Antipas. During this latter period, the country east of the Jordan, which was ruled by the mild and honourable Herod Philip, also enjoyed peace and prosperity. But Judaea, from the death of Herod the Great, in B. C. 4, to the outbreak of the war in A.D. 66, was full of commotion. The great contrast between affairs in the north and in the south is strikingly apparent in Josephus' account of these times, although the contrast itself is never alluded to by him. From A.D. 7 to the time of the war, Judaea was ruled by Roman governors (except the short period covered by the reign of Agrippa I., A.D. 41 to 44), who, for the most part, were unprincipled and cruel men. They hated, oppressed, insulted, and wronged the Jews in many ways. They countenanced robbery, whenever they could receive a share of the plunder. They encouraged the system of bribery. Under them the priests became corrupt. Murder, violence, lawlessness of all kinds prevailed more and more. The conduct of these governors was very exasperating to the Jews; and at last, however little disposed for war they were at first, they were driven to take up arms, considering an honourable death better than a miserable life. But such long-continued misrule could hardly fail of generating misery and corruption. And in our estimate of Galilee it is never to be forgotten that, while up to A.D. 51, or perhaps 55, this province was in a state of peace and prosperity, the province of Judaea, on the other hand, had, for half a century, lacked both law and order, and there had come to prevail a terrible state of licence and anarchy.

The Jews are oppressed by the Romans, and wronged by Felix, who takes Drusilla from her husband for his own wife. Lawlessness and corruption increase, and the Jews are driven to madness. The country suffers much in many ways, and robbers are encouraged. Judaea is overrun by robbers, and every section of the country is infested by them. The Romans hate the Jews, and insult them. Florus' conduct is violent and exasperating, and the same is true of Sabinius'. of Patronius', and of Pilate's. The great financial crisis in Rome in A.D. 33 affects Palestine. The priests become corrupt, and the poorer priests are left to suffer and die. By the violence of Florus, the Jews are forced to leave the country; yet Cumanus does the Jews a favour. But in this case he could hardly have refused to interfere. Vitellius also does them favours. The Sikars, who were assassins with concealed weapons, sica, hence Sicarii, originated in Jerusalem.

The revolt of Judas, son of Hezekias, on the death of Herod the Great, has sometimes been referred to as showing the turbulent spirit of the Galileans. But the commotions at the time were widespread, and by no means confined to one section; Judas in Galilee gets possession of Sepphoris; Simon makes an insurrection in Peraea, crosses the Jordan, and burns the palace in Jericho; two thousand of Herod's old soldiers make an insurrection in Idumaea; Athronges in Judaea sets himself up as king; four parties in four different lections of the country keep the nation in tumult; all these are in addition to the fierce outbreak at the Feast of Pentecost that year, May 31, B.C. 4.

1) Merivale, Romans under the Empire, III. p. 287.

2) Judges v. 18.

3) I. p. 313.

4) Neubauer, p. 183.